History of Iron Smelting Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa

History of Iron Smelting Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa Introduction: The arrival of iron smelting technology in sub-Saharan Africa played a significant role in shaping the historical record of the area by bringing profound changes to the lives and societies of its inhabitants (Haaland Shinnie 7). In the parts of Africa south of the Sahara and south of the Ethiopian highlands, there has been no archaeological evidence supporting a Bronze Age (Van Der Merwe 463; Alpern ; Holl 6) and the evidence archaeologists do have point to iron being the first metal used to replace stone tools (Fagan 1). One area of intense debate regarding the African Iron Age is the process in which the technology of iron smelting arrived in sub-Saharan Africa. Over the past half-century, the interpretations and reconstructions of the origins of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa have changed considerably. The initial theory was based on an unquestioned belief of the superiority of Ancient Egypt over sub-Saharan Africa (Kense 12). Based on this framework, the site of Meroe was pr oposed by Arkell as an important link and the general belief was that the collapse of the Kingdom of Kush precipitated the spread of technology and Meroitic culture into the southwest (Kense 13). However excavations conducted in the 1960s determined that the iron smelting furnaces found at Meroe mostly dated to the first few centuries B.C.E (Shinnie 30) and its pivotal role in the spread of iron smelting technology was shown to be increasingly hard to defend (Kense 13). Three theories regarding the origins of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa have emerged and are currently disputed amongst scholars (Holl 7). Two of the theories are diffusionist meaning these theories claim the technology originated elsewhere and was transported into the region. These theories are based on the premise that iron smelting originated somewhere in Anatolia and from there the technology was adopted by other populations and spread throughout the Mediterranean and into Africa. The main diffusionist theory was first proposed by Raymond Muany in 1952. He argues that since the Phoenicians had iron by about 1100 B.C. and that they started colonizing Northern Africa at around the same time; it was possible that the knowledge of iron smelting was transmitted into sub-Saharan Africa with the Berber tribes living in the Saharan Desert as a medium (Alpern 46). The other diffusionist hypothesis arose as a counter to early iron smelting furnaces found west of Lake Victoria in Tanzania. This hypothesis proposes that the technology came from Arabia via the Horn of Africa (Alpern 80). The theory that has gained the most acceptance recently is the one arguing for the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa (Alpern 41). A slew of archaeological discoveries in the past twenty years have strengthened the case for independent invention. Some people have even gone as far as arguing that, based on controversial discoveries made in 2008, inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa were the first to smelt iron, preceding Anatolia by about 700 years (Pringle ). The strongest case against independent invention is the complexity of iron smelting. Iron requires specialized knowledge in order to transform iron ore into usable iron (Kense 19) and it has long been held that people without prior knowledge of smelting techniques would not be able to smelt iron successfully (Sassoon 5). Two areas of sub-Saharan Africa have emerged as candidates for areas where iron smelting could have developed, the Western Africa region around the Niger-Nigeria border or north-western Ta nzania. This essay will argue for the independent discovery of iron smelting technology in sub-Saharan Africa based on discoveries made in Western Africa. Background: To understand why there has been such a strong opposition to the idea of sub-Saharan Africa independently inventing iron smelting technology, it is necessary to consider the difficulty and skill required to smelt iron. It is hypothesized that iron was first used as a flux, a substance that is smelted together with the desired ore in order to make the slag, or waste rock, more liquid, in the smelting of copper (Wheeler Madden 114). The iron mixed with slag would have been spongy at the temperatures inside a copper smelting furnace. It could only then be shaped into something usable through repeated hammering and heating (Wheeler Madden 114). The difficulty in creating iron objects is testament in the value iron objects had during the early and mid Bronze Age. In Egypt, for example, Tutankhamen was wrapped in with a golden dagger and a matching iron dagger with a gold hilt (van der Merwe 466). So although ancient smiths, masters of smelting bronze and copper, knew about iron, the diffi culties in smelting the metal took a long time to overcome. The smelting of iron occurs when iron ore is heated together with a charcoal fuel. This causes the iron in the ore to fuse chemically with the carbon from the charcoal. The more carbon dissolved in the iron, the lower its melting point. The amount of ore to fuel, and the supply of combustion air determine whether cast iron, steel, wrought iron, or a useless lump of metal will form (Alpern 82). Copper on the other hand melts readily at 1084ÂÂ °, temperatures that can be reached in a charcoal fire or during ceramic firing (Holl 6). In sum, the reduction of iron ore requires much more sophisticated expertise than does the smelting of other metal ores. Without pre-existing furnace technology, the likelihood of stumbling upon the process required is slim (Sassoon 5). Due to these foundations and a lack of archaeological evidence supporting very early iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa at the time, Mauny proposed the most plausible scenario for the diffusion of iron metallurgy (Alpern 45). He speculated that when the Phoenicians settled in North Africa, the Berbers living in the region, being from a nomadic warrior culture, would have been keen to acquire improved weapons made from iron metal. These Berbers living near the coast would then pass on this technology to their fellow Berbers living in the Sahara (Kense 24). He then suggested that the technology could have been taken south into the sub-Saharan savannah by fleeing slaves, or deliberately transmitted to the lands of black farmers where both iron ore and the wood to fuel smelting furnaces were relatively abundant. The farmers would in turn supply the Berbers with raw metal for ironworking in exchange (Alpern 46). Mauny offered some linguistic evidence for his model. Derivatives of the Phoenician word for iron, barzel, are found in Berber vocabularies throughout the Sahara and also in the Teda (Tubu) language of Tibesti and the Fezzan.20 Mauny also saw affiliations with the terms for iron among several savanna-dwelling black peoples, including the Bariba, Jukun, and Kanuri.21 He might have added that Carthaginian influence on the Berbers may be attested to this day by the Tifinagh alphabet of the Tuareg, which is thought by some scholars to derive ultimately from a Punic script. There is a strong case that Africa independently invented ceramics, however there does seem to be evidence for Berber transfer of metallurgy across the Sahara, but it comes not from Niger but from Mauritania in the far west. Ancient copper artifacts began to be noticed in that region in the early twentieth century. By 1951 enough had been found for Mauny to wonder, in print, whether Mauritania had experienced a Copper Age.70 An answer came in 1968, when French archeologist Nicole Lambert began excavating what was known as the Grotte aux Chauves-souris (Bat Cave) on a hill called the Guelb Moghrein near Akjoujt in western Mauritania. It was not a cave at all, but an ancient mining gallery dug by humans following a rich vein of malachite ore. The ore was not only extracted, but locally smelted, as furnace remains and slag attest. Four other ancient exploitation sites were found later on the Guelb Moghrein. Ra-diocarbon datings, eventually calibrated, are nearly all in the range 800 to 200 cal BCE. Subsequently at least three other metallurgical centers from the same period were discovered in the Akjoujt region. The number of ancient copper objects found in the western Sahara and attributed to the Akjoujt industry exceeded 160 at last count. The great majority are weapons: arrowheads, lance points, and daggers. Tools include hatchets, pins, awls, burins, and hooks. There are the inevitable personal ornaments-rings, earrings, pendants-and some ingots. All the items are very small and very light; when the number reached about 140, the total weight barely topped two kilograms. They were produced in a Neolithic context in which stone tools vastly outnumbered the metal ones, so one can hardly speak of a Copper Age on the basis of present evidence. How did copper mining and working get started at Akjoujt? It is possible the industry was indigenous, but no one yet seems to have made a real case for that. Lambert saw a resemblance between the Akjoujt products and those of the El Argar culture in southeastern Spain, where copper was being manufactured by at least 1700 BCE and bronze some 200 years later. She thought the few ancient brass and bronze artifacts also found in Mauritania might have been imported from the western Maghreb. She noted that chariot engravings had been found on rocks in three places near Akjoujt and thought they might be road signs indicating an early traffic between Morocco and Mauritania.71 Mauny discerned Phoenician or Carthaginian initiatives behind the Akjoujt industry, with Berbers actually importing the technology, but Lamberts idea of an Iberian connection might have some merit.72 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, British archeologist Colin Renfrew, in a sweeping challenge to the then-reigning diffusionist orthodoxy, suggested that copper metallurgy was independently invented on the Iberian Peninsula long before Phoenicians or Greeks reached the western Mediterranean. 73 Since then much evidence has accumulated that he was right, and that Iberian copper metallurgy dates back at least to 3000 BCE.74 It also seems that the technology crossed from Spain to Morocco before the Phoenicians set foot on the Moroccan coast. Until the mid-twentieth century, it was thought the western Maghreb had not experienced a Copper or Bronze Age. Finds of metal objects, ancient mines, and, especially, rock engravings have undercut that notion: copper in Morocco may date all the way back to the third millennium BCE, according to some leading researchers.75 Rock art in the High Atlas shows weapons typical of the El Argar culture, especially daggers, halberds, and axes.76 Conceivably, cuprous objects reached Morocco in exchange for two North African products, ivory and ostrich eggshells, that have been found in third- and second- millennium-BCE graves in southeast Spain.77 But no certain proof of early copper smelting has yet turned up in the Maghreb. Did the Akjoujt copper industry, whatever its origins, lead to an independent invention of iron metallurgy? The malachite of Bat Cave occurred in a matrix of hematite and magnetite that was discarded in the smelting process. There is no evidence that the coppersmiths ever produced iron, although the raw material was at hand. However, proof of ironworking from the same period has recently been found some 250 miles south of Akjoujt in the middle Senegal river valley. At a site called Walalde, iron artifacts dating to somewhere between 800 and 550 cal BCE have been found, and in a second phase of occupation, from ca. 550 to 200 cal BCE, clear evidence of iron smelting has been excavated. The latter phase also yielded three copper artifacts with a telltale chemical signature of the Akjoujt ores-more than 1% of arsenic and a smaller amount of nickel. Further excavation and study are required to evaluate the find, but it is clearly an important contribution to the history of metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa.

Local and National Provision for Netball Essay

Introduction The aim of this essay is to find out what provisions there are for netball in my local and the national areas, and whether or not there are any funding and coaching schemes for any level of netball from grassroots to elite level. Grassroots level Netball is available for all children to play at primary school level through to GCSE, girls and boys included. There are two main small-sided games aimed primarily at 7-11 year olds, for use in schools, clubs and holiday play schemes to provide fun, fitness and challenge for players of all abilities. First step Netball has been designed mainly for children aged 7-9 year olds (Years 3 & 4). It is a version of 4-a-side netball that was launched in 1993, it has been adapted to suit the younger player giving them more freedom on the court and more time (5 seconds) to make a decision before throwing the ball but in a third of the court. A size 4 netball is used and an 8ft post. High five netball is the next stage for children aged 9-11 (years 5 & 6). This is a modified game that provides the best foundation for young people to develop the physical, social and tactical skills; it also develops the knowledge and understanding of the game. There are 5 players on a full sized netball court, the others team members that are not on the court take up roles of timekeeper, score, umpire, and centre pass marker. A size 4 netball is used and they have 4 seconds to pass the ball and a 9ft netball post is used. This is the only game where England Netball provides resources and support for boys and girls playing in primary schools. A High fives Netball tournament will feature in this year’s Partnership Youth Games for boys and girls in school years 5&6. Provision for elite performers For talented players there is a pathway to play for the national team but it takes a long time to get there. There are county squads from U14’s to the open selection. A player is only fully recognised when they are selected to represent the County at under 16 levels. There are talent camps for athletes who show potential but these are normally for athletes under the age of 16, to become a talent camp athlete, you need are nominated by your County coaches. Athletes who successfully demonstrate all of the basic physical, technical, tactical and mental skills required for peak performance, and who can apply these in a competitive situation, are considered candidates to progress into the national talent squads, they tend to stay here for 2-4 years and only 50% of those move to the development squad. After spending another 2-4 years in the development squad and only some of the athletes demonstrating a very high degree of personal responsibility for individual and team results manage to make it into the national squad where they can spend up to 10 years depending on their quality of play. Figure 1 (below) shows that rather than an age related development framework, the All England Netball Association operates a national squad structure, which you work up depending on the quality of your play. There are a large number of leagues to play in around the country; for those who don’t make County teams there are the Millennium youth games. This is part of Sport England’s initiative to promote active sport. Regional tournaments are held every year. In Stafford there are two netball leagues: the Friday night league and the Stafford and district YLC netball league that takes part on Tuesdays and Wednesdays. The Friday night league is a casual league where you register your team and then play, you don’t wear uniforms and anybody can play including lads so long as the other team is ok with lads, also the umpires don’t have to have any qualifications to umpire. However, the YLC netball league is official with only qualified umpires and uniforms must be worn, only those registered as team players can compete. Provision for male competitors The England netball and IFNA have stated that only single sex competitions are permitted, however England Netball stated that any netball activities up to GCSE level (aged 16) must allow girls and boys to participate together. It is unacceptable to exclude either boys or girls under12 from any competitive or non-competitive netball activity. There are now some netball leagues that are either specifically for men or those which are for mixed teams. It is known that men’s netball teams play regularly in the West Indies, Canada, New Zealand, England and Australia. Flava is committed to the development of men’s netball and encourages boys to play netball as well as being represented in mixed netball competitions. Integral is another club that aims to provide an opportunity for men to play netball either as part of a mixed team or a men’s team, the club took part in several mixed tournaments in the summer of 2002 with some success. They are based in Macclesfield in the North West of England but players come from all over the UK to be part of the club. It was decided, by the Council, that a Men’s World Netball Championship should be held under the direction of IFNA, within the next five years at a time and place to be decided by Members Council. Provision for disabled competitors England Netball is committed to providing and promoting equal opportunities in Netball and its first fully co-ordinated National Disability Development Plan was launched in 1996. The plan now looks at the issues of accessibility for disabled people, to the Netball court, and also opportunities and courses for coaches, umpires, other officials and administrators. It focuses on awareness training for coaches, umpires and volunteers, to ensure that people with disabilities may enjoy the highest quality experiences through the game of Netball. A version of 7-a-side netball has been formed for those in wheelchairs (but with adaptations to 4 and 5-a-side), although obviously the rules have been modified covering travelling and playing the ball. This summer the National Netball Championships for People with Learning disabilities are holding a tournament run by England netball and the English Sports Association. There will be two age categories for those U17 and those over, the aim of this event is to encourage more people to play who struggle from disabilities. Unfortunately there doesn’t seem to be any local provisions for disabled netball they all seem to be on a national scheme. Conclusion I think that on a national level there are provisions being made for everyone to participate in netball, however, there is till not that much for the males or disabled participants. In the more local area there are leagues for females but this is still leaving out the disabled and the male netball players. The way that netball is at the moment means that the way to the top is only for talented female teenagers who can progress through the county level to talent squads and up to the top. Bibliography www.netball.org www.england-netball.co.uk www.isport.com.au www.flavanetball.co.uk www.sasactivesports.co.uk www.bwsf.org.uk

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Marketing Research Introduction Marketing research is â€Å"the process of defining a marketing problem and opportunity, systematically collecting and analyzing information, and recommending actions.† (Kerin, Hartley, Rudelius, 2015) Marketers use marketing research to improve and reduce the risk of marketing decisions. The role of marketing research is to provide management with significant, precise, consistent, valid, and up-to-date information. Marketing research is not a flawless tactic to solve marketing problems, but it does decrease the chance of making irrational decisions. Marketing managers have to make various decisions to satisfy customer needs. â€Å"They make decisions about potential opportunities, target market selection, market†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Five-step marketing research approach leads to marketing actions. Lessons learned from the past research mistakes are fed back to improve each of the steps.† (Kerin et al, 2015) First Step: Define the Problem The first step marketing researchers follow is defining the problem. Once the problem has been stated, they must set the research objectives. Research objectives is specific, measurable goals that need to be met in order to reach a solution. In order for research objectives to be effective the researcher must understand the purpose of the marketing actions. There are three types of marketing research. Exploratory research provides ideas for a problem that has yet to be clearly defined. Descriptive research allows researchers to see the connection between two different elements. Causal research lets the researchers determine how one change to an independent variable manipulates the dependent variable. Defining the problem and forming appropriate research objectives are very challenging tasks for the researchers. If the objective is too broad it is nearly impossible to conduct research on it. However, if the objective is too narrow there is a chance the researchers will not be able to obtain enough information to help find a solution to the original problem. Step 2: Develop the Research Plan After the research objectives have been established and explored, researchers must develop the research plan. The researcher must

Night Creature Dark Moon Chapter Twenty Three Free Essays

The shrill ring of the phone nearly made me jump out of my skin. Following the sound into the hall, I snatched up the receiver. â€Å"Hello?† Static came over the line, so loud I pulled the phone away from my ear. We will write a custom essay sample on Night Creature: Dark Moon Chapter Twenty Three or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"Hello?† I tried again. â€Å"Junkyard.† Screeech! â€Å"Edge of town.† More static. â€Å"Edsel behind a blue school bus.† I could barely understand the words. I couldn’t recognize the voice. â€Å"What?† Snap. â€Å"Research.† Crackle. â€Å"Serum.† â€Å"Edward?† I asked. Pop. The line went dead. I hung up and considered what I’d heard. Edward hadn’t called in, perhaps because he was back. In the junkyard. Waiting for me to come and get my research. But what if that hadn’t been Edward? Shaking my head, I headed into the bedroom, got dressed, checked my pocket for the icon – still there – then grabbed my shoes. Outside Nic’s door, I paused and listened. I could hear him breathing, slow and steady. Asleep. Good. I wasn’t going to take him with me. Not this time. I had to retrieve my research and create more serum, or I’d do a lot more than change. I’d kill. I wouldn’t be able to stop myself. I jogged north on Midtown Road. When the buildings ended, there was a junkyard. No fence encircled the area. If anyone wanted to drag away a wreck, more power to them. I’d slept through the day dreaming of Billy, and the cool caress of the moon trickled over my skin. Only a few nights from full, the orb was growing along with my hunger. With that thought driving me, I waded into the jungle of metal. For a tiny town, they had a lot of old cars. It took me ten minutes to locate a blue bus. Behind the vehicle, half-covered by the low-hanging branches of a very old tree, sat an Edsel. Or at least that was what the nameplate said. I’d never seen one before. There was a bite to the night, a chill in the air. I could have sworn a ghostly howl rose toward the stars, but when I turned my face upwind, I smelled nothing but motor oil. Edward was nowhere to be found. Unease trickled over me. The darkness pressed down; a sudden silence seemed to pulse with secrets and questions. My shoulders twitched as if I had a neon bull’s-eye painted on my back. walked around the Edsel. Where would I hide research, if I was the one doing the hiding? I went through the car, the trunk, the glove compartment. Nothing there but leaves, so I crawled underneath, checked the carriage, the tires, the ground, but there was no sign of any recent disturbance. 1 began to get the drift that the phone call hadn’t been on the up-and-up. Crawling out from under the car, I jogged back the way I’d come. I’d reached the main thoroughfare through the center of the junkyard, little more than a large space between the wrecks, when I stopped. Clouds danced past the moon, spreading a ghostly, flickering light. Shadows danced among the dead vehicles. Something slunk low in the tall grass at the edge of the clearing. The breeze whispered, caressing my skin, making me shiver. Something was here. I turned in a slow circle and my fingers brushed fur. Glancing at my hand, I scowled. I could still feel the tactile impression, but I saw nothing. A body thumped into the back of my legs, sending me forward. I tripped over an invisible barrier and slammed into the ground. Flipping onto my back, I tensed in expectation of an attack. None came. More edgy than I’d ever been, I got to my feet. The hair on my arms and at the back of my neck vibrated with awareness. I couldn’t run; I couldn’t just stand here and let whatever was stalking me do its worst. I had power of my own, but in human form I was as helpless as everyone else. As I tilted my face to the moon, Jessie’s jeans split at the seams; so did her shirt. My shoes cracked open with an annoyingly ripe shriek, and I was free. The odd, faint scent of wolf distracted me. I heard them growling, pacing, hunting, but all I saw were wisps and shadows. Nothing concrete. If I hadn’t smelled wolves, heard them, too, I wouldn’t have been able to distinguish just what it was that wavered here and there like ghosts. A slight movement and I spun just as a shimmering shade blew through me. I was cold, then hot. I heard the whisper of a voice I couldn’t understand, caught a glimpse of†¦ something I couldn’t quite place. As I turned slowly with a stiff-legged gait, wavering entities surrounded me. I darted at one, but it danced out of my way. Another levitated, then flew off into the trees. A third let me catch it, but when I encountered the strange cold spot, the whisper, I yelped and backpedaled with all my might. â€Å"Who’s out there?† I froze at the strange voice and ducked behind a rusted pickup truck. A graying, grizzled old man wandered through the wrecks. The night watchman or maybe the owner, he carried a rifle; however, that wasn’t what made the ruff on the back of my neck lift. A low rumble spread across the night. A distinct io warning, which the man didn’t appear to hear, even when the growl increased in volume and was joined by several others. Shadows flickered, circled, converged. Torn, I perched near the left truck tire, hoping whatever stalked the junkyard would go away. A pained whine erupted from my mouth, and the man’s gaze swung in my direction. Me, he could hear. I ducked low and hid behind the bumper. The shadows inched closer; the growls escalated to snarls. I had no choice. Though the ghostly wolves might not be able to hurt me, they might hurt him. I couldn’t let an innocent civilian be bitten or killed by Lord knows what. Bursting from cover, I ran straight at the first shadow in my path. I braced for the disturbing cold spot; nevertheless when I thundered through it I lost my footing, then tumbled across the grass, snarling, snapping at half a dozen other cold spots. I reached my feet, spun about, saw nothing and felt even less. Were they gone? Panting, I paced. Too much power, too much adrenaline. I had to fight something. Kill it and now. I caught a faint scent and followed it to the trees. Diving in, I sensed them all around me. My lip curled. I showed them my teeth. Come on! I wanted to shout. I can take you. I can take all of you. The foliage shivered. The odd smell faded. They had run because they were afraid, and I loved it. Tingling, I shook my fur as if I’d just stepped out of an icy river. Unable to contain myself, I tilted my nose to the moon and howled. As the sound of my exultation faded, the wind whispered, and this time I understood the words. Give in to the power. Embrace what you are and discover the secret you seek. I contemplated the message as the rushing of my blood and the racing of my heart lessened. The air seemed cooler, the moon brighter, the trees taller, and the grass softer, more fragrant. My head buzzed with the glory, the mystery, the strength, which was the only reason I forgot about the watchman until the squelch of a shoe against wet earth made me remember. By then it was too late. He shot me. How to cite Night Creature: Dark Moon Chapter Twenty Three, Essay examples

Continuing Professional Development For the Role of Pharmacist

Questions: This Continuing Professional Development for the role of pharmacist Reflection: 1. What do you need to learn? 2. How is this learning relevant to the safe and effective practice of pharmacy? 3. Why do you think that this learning may be useful for your future practice? 4. What have you learnt? 5. Give an example of how what you have learned could be applied to patient care in your future role as a pharmacist 6. What have been benefits of these activities to your learning? Answers: 1. What do you need to learn After reading the entire literature on Hepatic Disorder, I have come to know about the morphological and physiological aspects of the organ. I have highlighted towards several topics, which I need to analyze in details. I need to understand about the effective strategies facilitating towards minimizing hepatic disorders from the patients of England. I need to understand the effect of Hepatic Disorder and its consequences among the patients who are suffering from it. I need to know about the strategies undertaken by the recent medical practitioners to reduce (or eliminate) the effect of hepatic malfunctioning. I need to learn about the various consequences of hepatic disorder. This would be in relation to the viral agents and the development of malignancies. I need to learn about the strategies for managing the complications of hepatic disorder as it would be a powerful factor. Understanding the patient evaluation strategies along with acquiring information about liver assessment would be the primary objective of the study. Keeping a track on the drug intervention along with the therapeutic interventions for enhancing the health outcomes would be my target purpose for the research. Thereby developing the drug for gaining a productive outcome in the future would be the primary objective of the study. 2. How is this learning relevant to the safe and effective practice of pharmacy Learning about Hepatic Disorder helps in understanding the rationale regarding the drastic consequences of several common disorders. Hepatic Disorder leads to several consequences such as Jaundice, Pale Stools, Dark Urine, Spider Naevi, Bruising Bleeding, Encephalopathy, Portal Hypertension, Splenomegaly, Varices, Gynaecomastia, Pruritus and Ascites. Thus, assessing the factors leading to such disorders along with the carnal knowledge would help to minimize these effects to a huge extent. The various drug assessments such as Luxative therapy for preventing Hepatic Encephalopathy (HE), Rifaximin, L-Ornithine-L-Aspartate (LOLA), Spironolactone (for treating hepatic ascites) are involved. Thus identifying the high-risk factors of hepatic disorders leading to various consequences highlights towards the involvement of safety and effective practice of pharmacy Hepatic disorder in an individual tends to highlight several drastic consequences. This includes Jaundice, Pale Stools, Dark Urine, Spider Naevi, Bruising Bleeding, Encephalopathy, Portal Hypertension, Splenomegaly, Varices, Gynaecomastia, Pruritus and Ascites. Thus, assessment of the liver function at the early stage of the disease symptom needs to be analysed efficiently. Liver Assessment includes routine Liver Function Tests (LFTs), which includes Bilirubin, Aspartate Transaminase (AST), Alanine Transaminase (ALT) and Gamma Glutamyltransferase (GGT). These effective learning therapies are effective in promoting safe and effective practices in the pharmacy. 3. Why do you think that this learning may be useful for your future practice I think that learning about hepatic disorders along with its medical practices are crucial for future practice because this is one of the most common causes of death in England. Hepatic disorders are mainly accustomed due to improper lifestyles. This includes excessive alcohol consumption, obesity and infections due to hepatitis B and C. Thus, minimizing these consequences would be an efficient and challenging issue for a medical practitioner. The medical practitioners along with the several medical research teams would definitely target in minimizing these consequences in the future. Apart from the factor of Hepatitis, Liver malfunction is also caused by malignancies. Hence, screening for hepatic disorder would also help in developing research studies for cancer in the future. Moreover, the cost of medication for the hepatic disorder is quite high as compared to the other treatments in England. From the literature review, I have learnt that the disease cost for hepatic malfunctioning is 460m per year (on an average scale). Thus, reducing the effects of hepatic disorder would not only be philologically effective, but it would be adequate help regarding financial aspect of an individual. Thus, reducing these factors would contribute to develop a hepatic disorder free environment in the future. 4. What have you learnt I have discovered a brief review of the pathophysiology of the liver disease. The literature initiates with the basic structure and function of the liver. The organ being 1.4 kg (for women) and 1.6 kg (for men) is mainly divided into two loves. The entire structure is made up of hepatocytes, which is the metabolic cells of the liver. The liver has the function of metabolism (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, thyroxine, bilirubin, insulin, various medicines, hormones, aldosterone and vitamins. The organ synthesizes plasma proteins, clotting factors, cholesterol, glucose, bile, amino acid and urea. Storage of fat-soluble vitamins, glycogen, regulating the blood sugar and providing immunity are the associated functions of the liver. Furthermore, I have learnt about the two types of liver diseases, i.e. Acute Liver Disease and Chronic Liver Disease. When the onset of the symptoms does not prevail for six months, then the patient is subjected to acute liver disorder. On the other hand, the patients suffering from more than six months are accustomed to Chronic Liver disease. There are various causes of liver diseases which are observed by me while studying the literature. One of the primary causes is consumption of alcohol. This is supported by the occurrence of viral infection. It is estimated that Hepatitis A, which spreads via oral fecal causes hepatic disorders to a great extent. Hepatitis B causes chronic disorder despite having the effective vaccination. The transmission mainly occurs via infected blood and bloody fluids. Hepatitis C is a blood-borne virus, which is primarily transmitted through injectable drug usage. Apart from the viral infections, the hepatic disorder can also be encountered due to genetic imbalance. This includes the Haemochromatosis, Wilsons disease and Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency, which results to severe liver malfunctions within an individual. Hepatic disorders are also attained by autoimmune effects, which affect young women between the ages of 20-40. Primary Biliary Cirrhosis, which causes accumulation of small and intrahepatic bile ducts, results in the formation of fibrosis and cirrhosis. Malignancy is also associated with the hepatic disorder largely. 5. Give an example of how what you have learned could be applied to patient care in your future role as a pharmacist As I have learnt that many medicines cause liver dysfunction, this leads to the development of direct toxicity of the metabolites. It was estimated that patients with the pre-existing hepatic disorder are not associated with increased risk of Drug-Induced Hepatotoxicity (apart from metho-methotrexate and sodium valproate). The drugs induce all forms of acute and chronic hepatic disorders. Hepatic disorder in an individual tends to highlight several drastic consequences. This includes Jaundice, Pale Stools, Dark Urine, Spider Naevi, Bruising Bleeding, Encephalopathy, Portal Hypertension, Splenomegaly, Varices, Gynaecomastia, Pruritus and Ascites. Thus, assessment of the liver function at the early stage of the disease symptom needs to be analysed efficiently. Liver Assessment includes routine Liver Function Tests (LFTs), which includes Bilirubin, Aspartate Transaminase (AST), Alanine Transaminase (ALT) and Gamma Glutamyltransferase (GGT). Thus developing drugs against such disorders would be the key objective for the pharmacist. The drugs need to be developed at an effective rate, which would broaden the spectrum to an enormous extent. Hence, being a pharmacist I would insist on withdrawing every drug that has the possibility to develop hepatic malfunctioning. This would be an effective therapy for the patient, which would reduce the catastrophic phenomenon to a huge extent. 6. What have been the benefits of these activities to your learning The activities undertaken from the literature context would highlight towards the medical intervention associated with hepatic disorder. The background highlighted towards the possible outcomes of over-consumption of alcohol, thus providing a social awareness statement for the community. Moreover, the awareness of various drugs susceptible to developing hepatic disorders is simultaneously highlighted in this context, which needs to be precisely monitored before public usage. Apart from these, the literature focused towards the benefits of the drugs, which are associated towards minimizing/eradicating the consequences of hepatic disorders from the community. As observed previously, the hepatic disease is one of the most common factors of England causing thousands of deaths every year. Hence, understanding these risk factors would help in minimizing these factors and thereby saving these affected patients to a huge extent. Thus study provided a social awareness by interrelating the effect of alcohol consumption on hepatic disorders. Apart from the social awareness factor, the study also correlated towards the various factors of hepatic disorder such as malignancy and viral pathogens. Thus, it provided a room for further research regarding this interrelationship status to develop effective therapies and drugs against these issues. This is one of the biggest benefits related to the study, which signifies towards a better future for tomorrow.